- The Thread Model
- Thread Usage
- Implementing Threads in User Space
- Implementing Threads in the Kernel
- Hybrid Implementations
- Scheduler Activations
- Making Single-Threaded Code Multithreaded
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Implementing Threads in the Kernel
Now let us consider having the kernel know about and manage the threads. No run-time system is needed in each, as shown in Fig. 2-8(b). Also, there is no thread table in each process. Instead, the kernel has a thread table that keeps track of all the threads in the system. When a thread wants to create a new thread or destroy an existing thread, it makes a kernel call, which then does the creation or destruction by updating the kernel thread table.
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The kernel's thread table holds each thread's registers, state, and other information. The information is the same as with user-level threads, but it is now in the kernel instead of in user space (inside the run-time system). This information is a subset of the information that traditional kernels maintain about each of their single-threaded processes, that is, the process state. In addition, the kernel also maintains the traditional process table to keep track of processes.
All calls that might block a thread are implemented as system calls, at considerably greater cost than a call to a run-time system procedure. When a thread blocks, the kernel, at its option, can run either another thread from the same process (if one is ready), or a thread from a different process. With user-level threads, the run-time system keeps running threads from its own process until the kernel takes the CPU away from it (or there are no ready threads left to run).
Due to the relatively greater cost of creating and destroying threads in the kernel, some systems take an environmentally correct approach and recycle their threads. When a thread is destroyed, it is marked as not runnable, but its kernel data structures are not otherwise affected. Later, when a new thread must be created, an old thread is reactivated, saving some overhead. Thread recycling is also possible for user-level threads, but since the thread management overhead is much smaller, there is less incentive to do this.
Kernel threads do not require any new, nonblocking system calls. In addition, if one thread in a process causes a page fault, the kernel can easily check to see if the process has any other runnable threads, and if so, run one of them while waiting for the required page to be brought in from the disk. Their main disadvantage is that the cost of a system call is substantial, so if thread operations (creation, termination, etc.) are common, much more overhead will be incurred.