This chapter is from the book
This chapter is from the book
This chapter is from the book
1.2 Concept of Equilibrium
The separation processes we are studying in Chapters 1 to 14 are based on the equilibrium stage concept, which states that streams leaving a stage are in equilibrium. What do we mean by equilibrium?
Consider a vapor and a liquid that are in contact with each other as shown in Figure 1-2. Liquid molecules are continually vaporizing, while vapor molecules are continually condensing. If two chemical species are present, they will, in general, condense and vaporize at different rates. When not at equilibrium, the liquid and the vapor can be at different pressures and temperatures and be present in different mole fractions. At equilibrium the temperatures, pressures, and fractions of the two phases cease to change. Although molecules continue to evaporate and condense, the rate at which each species condenses is equal to the rate at which it evaporates. Although on a molecular scale nothing has stopped, on the macroscopic scale, where we usually observe processes, there are no further changes in temperature, pressure, or composition.
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Figure 1-2 Vapor-liquid contacting system
Equilibrium conditions can be conveniently subdivided into thermal, mechanical, and chemical potential equilibrium. In thermal equilibrium, heat transfer stops and the temperatures of the two phases are equal.
Equation 1-1
In mechanical equilibrium, the forces between vapor and liquid balance. In the staged separation processes we will study, this usually implies that the pressures are equal. Thus for the cases in this book,
Equation 1-2
If the interface between liquid and vapor is curved, equal forces do not imply equal pressures. In this case the Laplace equation can be derived (e.g., see Levich, 1962).
In phase equilibrium, the rate at which each species is vaporizing is just equal to the rate at which it is condensing. Thus there is no change in composition (mole fraction in Figure 1-2). However, in general, the compositions of liquid and vapor are not equal. If the compositions were equal, no separation could be achieved in any equilibrium process. If temperature and pressure are constant, equal rates of vaporization and condensation require a minimum in the free energy of the system. The resulting condition for phase equilibrium is
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Equation 1-3
The development of Eq. (1-3), including the necessary definitions and concepts, is the subject of a large portion of many books on thermodynamics (e.g., Balzhiser et al., 1972; Denbigh, 1981; Elliott and Lira, 1999; Sandler, 2006; Smith et al., 2005; Walas, 1985) but is beyond the scope of this book. However, Eq. (1-3) does require that there be some relationship between liquid and vapor compositions. In real systems this relationship may be very complex and experimental data may be required. We will assume that the equilibrium data or appropriate correlations are known (see Chapter 2), and we will confine our discussion to the use of the equilibrium data in the design of separation equipment.