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This chapter is from the book

Learning How to Use Operators

Operators are the elements you use inside an expression to articulate how you want specified conditions to retrieve data. Operators fall into six groups: arithmetic, comparison, character, logical, set, and miscellaneous. SQL utilizes three types of operators: arithmetic, comparison, and logical.

Arithmetic Operators

The arithmetic operators are plus (+), minus (), divide (/), multiply (*), and modulo (%). The first four are self-explanatory. Modulo returns the integer remainder of a division. Here are two examples:

5 % 2 = 1
6 % 2 = 0

The modulo operator does not work with data types that have decimals, such as Real or Number.

If you place several of these arithmetic operators in an expression without any parentheses, the operators are resolved in this order: multiplication, division, modulo, addition, and subtraction. For example, the expression

2*6+9/3

equals

12 + 3 = 15

However, the expression

2 * (6 + 9) / 3

equals

2 * 15 / 3 = 10

Watch where you put those parentheses! Sometimes the expression does exactly what you tell it to do, rather than what you want it to do. The same holds true for SQL.

The following sections examine the arithmetic operators in some detail and give you a chance to write some queries.

Plus (+)

You can use the plus sign in several ways. Type the following statement to display the PRICE table:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM PRICE;
ITEM            WHOLESALE
--------------- ---------
TOMATOES              .34
POTATOES              .51
BANANAS               .67
TURNIPS               .45
CHEESE                .89
APPLES                .23
6 rows selected.

Now type

Input

SQL> SELECT ITEM, WHOLESALE, WHOLESALE + 0.15
   2 FROM PRICE;

Here the + adds 15 cents to each price to produce the following:

Output

ITEM            WHOLESALE WHOLESALE+0.15
--------------- --------- ---------------
TOMATOES              .34            .49
POTATOES              .51            .66
BANANAS               .67            .82
TURNIPS               .45            .60
CHEESE                .89           1.04
APPLES                .23            .38
6 rows selected.

Analysis

What is this last column with the unattractive column heading WHOLESALE+0.15? It’s not in the original table. SQL allows you to create a virtual or derived column by combining or modifying existing columns.

Retype the original entry:

Input

SQL> SELECT * FROM PRICE;

The following table results:

Output

ITEM            WHOLESALE
--------------- ---------
TOMATOES              .34
POTATOES              .51
BANANAS               .67
TURNIPS               .45
CHEESE                .89
APPLES                .23
6 rows selected.

Analysis

The output confirms that the original data has not been changed and that the column heading WHOLESALE+0.15 is not a permanent part of it. In fact, the column heading is so unattractive that you should do something about it.

Type the following:

Input

SQL> SELECT ITEM, WHOLESALE, (WHOLESALE + 0.15) RETAIL
   2 FROM PRICE;

Here’s the result:

Output

ITEM            WHOLESALE    RETAIL
--------------- ---------    ------
TOMATOES              .34       .49
POTATOES              .51       .66
BANANAS               .67       .82
TURNIPS               .45       .60
CHEESE                .89      1.04
APPLES                .23       .38
6 rows selected.

Analysis

This is wonderful! Not only can you create new output columns, but you can also rename them on the fly. You can rename any of the columns using the syntax <column_name> <alias>. (Note the space between the column_name and alias.)

For example, the query

Input

SQL> SELECT ITEM PRODUCE, WHOLESALE, WHOLESALE + 0.25 RETAIL
   2 FROM PRICE;

renames the columns as follows:

Output

PRODUCE         WHOLESALE    RETAIL
--------------- ---------   -------
TOMATOES              .34       .59
POTATOES              .51       .76
BANANAS               .67       .92
TURNIPS               .45       .70
CHEESE                .89      1.14
APPLES                .23       .48
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

You might be wondering what use aliasing is if you are not using command-line SQL. Fair enough. Have you ever wondered how report builders work? Some day, when you are asked to write a report generator, you’ll remember this and not spend weeks reinventing what Dr. Codd and IBM have wrought.

In some implementations of SQL, the plus sign does double duty as a character operator. You’ll see that side of the plus sign a little later in this lesson.

Minus ()

Minus also has two uses. First, it can change the sign of a number. You can use the table HILOW to demonstrate this function.

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM HILOW;
STATE           LOWS     HIGHS
-----           ----     -----
CA               -50       120
FL                20       110
LA                15        99
ND               -70       101
NE               -60       100

For example, here’s a way to manipulate the data:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT STATE, - LOWS, - HIGHS
   2 FROM HILOW;
STATE           LOWS     HIGHS
-----           ----     -----
CA                50      -120
FL               -20      -110
LA               -15       -99
ND                70      -101
NE                60      -100

The second (and obvious) use of the minus sign is to subtract one column from another—for example,

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT STATE,
  2  LOWS,
  3  HIGHS,
  4  (–HIGHS - LOWS) DIFFERENCE
  5  FROM HILOW;


STATE           LOWS     HIGHS  DIFFERENCE
-----           ----     -----  ----------
CA               -50       120        170
FL                20       110         90
LA                15        99         84
ND               -70       101        171
NE               -60       100        160

If you accidentally use the minus sign on a character field, you get something like this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT -STATE FROM HILOW;

ERROR:
ORA-01722: invalid number
no rows selected

The exact error message varies with implementation. Here is an example using MySQL:

Input/Output

mysql> select -state
    -> from hilow;
+--------+
| -state |
+--------+
|      0 |
|      0 |
|      0 |
|      0 |
+--------+
4 rows in set (0.00 sec)

MySQL evaluated the SELECT statement, but as you can see, the results are rather meaningless.

Divide (/)

The division operator has only the one obvious meaning. Using the table PRICE, type the following:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM PRICE;
ITEM            WHOLESALE
--------        ---------
TOMATOES              .34
POTATOES              .51
BANANAS               .67
TURNIPS               .45
CHEESE                .89
APPLES                .23
6 rows selected.

mysql> select * from price;
+----------+-----------+
| item     | wholesale |
+----------+-----------+
| TOMATOES |      0.34 |
| POTATOES |      0.51 |
| BANANAS  |      0.67 |
| TURNIPS  |      0.45 |
| CHEESE   |      0.89 |
| APPLES   |      0.23 |
+----------+-----------+


6 rows in set (0.26 sec)

You can show the effects of a two-for-one sale by typing the next statement:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT ITEM, WHOLESALE, (WHOLESALE/2) SALEPRICE
  2  FROM PRICE;
ITEM            WHOLESALE SALEPRICE
--------------- --------- ---------
TOMATOES              .34       .17
POTATOES              .51      .255
BANANAS               .67      .335
TURNIPS               .45      .225
CHEESE                .89      .445
APPLES                .23      .115
6 rows selected.

The same example in MySQL would be:

Input/Output

mysql> select ITEM, WHOLESALE, (WHOLESALE/2) Saleprice
    -> from price;
+----------+-----------+-----------+
| ITEM     | WHOLESALE | Saleprice |
+----------+-----------+-----------+
| TOMATOES |      0.34 |    0.1700 |
| POTATOES |      0.51 |    0.2550 |
| BANANAS  |      0.67 |    0.3350 |
| TURNIPS  |      0.45 |    0.2250 |
| CHEESE   |      0.89 |    0.4450 |
| APPLES   |      0.23 |    0.1150 |
+----------+-----------+-----------+
6 rows in set (0.26 sec)

The use of division in the preceding SELECT statement is straightforward (except that coming up with half pennies can be tough).

Multiply (*)

The multiplication operator is also straightforward. Again, using the PRICE table, type the following:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM PRICE;
ITEM            WHOLESALE
--------------- ---------
TOMATOES              .34
POTATOES              .51
BANANAS               .67
TURNIPS               .45
CHEESE                .89
APPLES                .23
6 rows selected.

The output from this query reflects an across-the-board 10% discount. The actual data in the table has not changed.

Input/Output

SQL> SQL> SELECT ITEM, WHOLESALE, WHOLESALE * 0.9 NEWPRICE
   2 FROM PRICE;

ITEM            WHOLESALE  NEWPRICE
--------------- ---------  --------
TOMATOES              .34      .306
POTATOES              .51      .459
BANANAS               .67      .603
TURNIPS               .45      .405
CHEESE                .89      .801
APPLES                .23      .207
6 rows selected.

The same example in MySQL would be:

Input/Output

mysql> select Item,
    -> Wholesale, Wholesale * 0.9 "New Price"
    -> from price;
+----------+-----------+-----------+
| Item     | Wholesale | New Price |
+----------+-----------+-----------+
| TOMATOES |      0.34 |      0.31 |
| POTATOES |      0.51 |      0.46 |
| BANANAS  |      0.67 |      0.60 |
| TURNIPS  |      0.45 |      0.41 |
| CHEESE   |      0.89 |      0.80 |
| APPLES   |      0.23 |      0.21 |
+----------+-----------+-----------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

These operators enable you to perform powerful calculations in a SELECT statement.

Modulo (%)

The modulo operator returns the integer remainder of the division operation. Using the table REMAINS, type the following:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM REMAINS;
NUMERATOR  DENOMINATOR
---------  -----------
       10           5
        8           3
       23           9
       40          17
     1024          16
       85          34
6 rows selected.

The same example in MySQL would be:

Input/Output

mysql> select * from remains;
+-----------+-------------+
| numerator | denominator |
+-----------+-------------+
|        10 |           5 |
|         8 |           3 |
|        23 |           9 |
|        40 |          17 |
|      1024 |          16 |
|        85 |          34 |
+-----------+-------------+
6 rows in set (0.43 sec)

You can also create a new output column, REMAINDER, to hold the values of NUMERATOR % DENOMINATOR:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT NUMERATOR,
   2 DENOMINATOR,
   3 NUMERATOR%DENOMINATOR REMAINDER
   4 FROM REMAINS;

NUMERATOR DENOMINATOR REMAINDER
--------- ----------- ---------
       10           5         0
        8           3         2
       23           9         5
       40          17         6
     1024          16         0
       85          34        17
6 rows selected.

The same example in MySQL would be:

Input/Output

mysql> select numerator, denominator, numerator%denominator remainder
    -> from remains;
+-----------+-------------+-----------------------+
| numerator | denominator | remainder             |
+-----------+-------------+-----------------------+
|        10 |           5 |                     0 |
|         8 |           3 |                     2 |
|        23 |           9 |                     5 |
|        40 |          17 |                     6 |
|      1024 |          16 |                     0 |
|        85 |          34 |                    17 |
+-----------+-------------+-----------------------+
6 rows in set (0.01 sec)

Analysis

Some implementations of SQL implement modulo as a function called MOD (see Lesson 7, “Molding Data with Built-in Functions”). The following statement produces results that are identical to the results in the preceding statement:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT NUMERATOR,
   2 DENOMINATOR,
   3 MOD(NUMERATOR,DENOMINATOR) REMAINDER
   4 FROM REMAINS;


NUMERATOR DENOMINATOR REMAINDER
--------- ----------- ---------
       10           5         0
        8           3         2
       23           9         5
       40          17         6
     1024          16         0
       85          34        17
6 rows selected.

The same example in MySQL would be:

Input/Output

mysql> select numerator, denominator,
    -> mod(numerator,denominator) remainder
    -> from remains;
+-----------+-------------+----------------------------+
| numerator | denominator | remainder                  |
+-----------+-------------+----------------------------+
|        10 |           5 |                          0 |
|         8 |           3 |                          2 |
|        23 |           9 |                          5 |
|        40 |          17 |                          6 |
|      1024 |          16 |                          0 |
|        85 |          34 |                         17 |
+-----------+-------------+----------------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Precedence

Precedence is the order in which an implementation will evaluate different operators in the same expression. This section examines the use of precedence in a SELECT statement. Using the table PRECEDENCE, type the following:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM PRECEDENCE;
       N1        N2        N3        N4
  -------  --------  --------  --------
        1         2         3         4
       13        24        35        46
        9         3        23         5
       63         2        45         3
        7         2         1         4
5 rows selected.

mysql> select * from precedence;
+----+----+----+----+
| n1 | n2 | n3 | n4 |
+----+----+----+----+
|  1 |  2 |  3 |  4 |
| 13 | 24 | 35 | 46 |
|  9 |  3 | 23 |  5 |
| 63 |  2 | 45 |  3 |
|  7 |  2 |  1 |  4 |
+----+----+----+----+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Use the following code segment to test precedence:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT
   2 N1+N2*N3/N4,
   3 (N1+N2)*N3/N4,
   4 N1+(N2*N3)/N4
   5 FROM PRECEDENCE;
N1+N2*N3/N4 (N1+N2)*N3/N4 N1+(N2*N3)/N4
----------- ------------- -------------
        2.5          2.25           2.5
   31.26087     28.152174      31.26087
       22.8          55.2          22.8
         93           975            93
        7.5          2.25           7.5


5 rows selected.
mysql> select n1+n2*n3/n4,
    -> (n1+n2)*n3/n4,
    -> n1+(n2*n3)/n4
    -> from precedence;
+-------------+-------------+---------------+
| n1+n2*n3/n4 |(n1+n2)*n3/n4| n1+(n2*n3)/n4 |
+-------------+-------------+---------------+
|        2.50 |           9 |          2.50 |
|       31.26 |        1295 |         31.26 |
|       22.80 |         276 |         22.80 |
|       93.00 |        2925 |         93.00 |
|        7.50 |           9 |          7.50 |
+-------------+-------------+---------------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Notice that the first and last columns are identical. If you added a fourth column N1+N2*(N3/N4), its values would also be identical to those of the current first and last columns. The rules for precedence follow the usual algebraic set in that values are normally executed in the following order moving left to right.

  1. Parentheses
  2. Multiplication/division
  3. Addition/subtraction

Analysis

Quite simply, values inside parentheses are computed first, then multiplication or division operations are performed, and lastly addition and subtraction operations are performed. These rules are important to remember as you start to write more complicated calculations to analyze data.

Comparison Operators

True to their name, comparison operators compare expressions and return one of three values: TRUE, FALSE, or UNKNOWN. Wait a minute! Unknown? TRUE and FALSE are self-explanatory, but what is UNKNOWN?

To understand how you could get an UNKNOWN, you need to know a little about the concept of NULL. In database terms, NULL is the absence of data in a field. It does not mean that a column has a zero or a blank in it. A zero or a blank is a value. NULL means nothing is in that field.

If you make a comparison such as Field = 9 and the only acceptable value for Field is NULL, the comparison will come back UNKNOWN. Because UNKNOWN is an uncomfortable condition, most flavors of SQL change UNKNOWN to FALSE and provide a special operator, IS NULL, to test for a NULL condition.

Here’s an example of NULL: Suppose an entry in the PRICE table does not contain a value for WHOLESALE. The results of a query might look like this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM PRICE;

ITEM            WHOLESALE
---------       ---------
TOMATOES              .34
POTATOES              .51
BANANAS               .67
TURNIPS               .45
CHEESE                .89
APPLES                .23
ORANGES


7 rows selected.

Analysis

Notice that no value appears in the WHOLESALE field position for ORANGES. The value of the field WHOLESALE for ORANGES is NULL. The NULL is noticeable in this case because it is in a numeric column. However, if the NULL appeared in the ITEM column, it would be impossible to tell the difference between NULL and a blank.

Try to find the NULL:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM PRICE
   3 WHERE WHOLESALE IS NULL;
ITEM            WHOLESALE
--------        ---------
ORANGES

1 rows selected.

As you can see by the output, ORANGES is the only item whose value for WHOLESALE is NULL, or does not contain a value. What if you use the equal sign (=) instead?

Input/Output

SQL>SELECT *
   2 FROM PRICE
   3 WHERE WHOLESALE = NULL;

no rows selected

Analysis

You wouldn’t find anything because the comparison WHOLESALE = NULL returned a FALSE—the result was unknown. It would be more appropriate to use an IS NULL instead of =, changing the WHERE statement to WHERE WHOLESALE IS NULL. In this case, you would get all the rows where a NULL existed.

This example also illustrates both the use of the most common comparison operator (=) and the playground of all comparison operators, the WHERE clause. You already know about the WHERE clause, so here’s a brief look at the equal sign.

Equal Sign (=)

Earlier today you saw how some implementations of SQL use the equal sign in the SELECT clause to assign an alias. In the WHERE clause, the equal sign is the most commonly used comparison operator. Used alone, the equal sign is a very convenient way of selecting one value out of many. Try this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM FRIENDS;
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- --------
BUNDY           AL                    100 555-1111 IL 22333
MEZA            AL                    200 555-2222 UK
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
BULHER          FERRIS                345 555-3223 IL 23332
5 rows selected.

Let’s find JD’s row. (On a short list this task appears trivial, but you might have more friends than we do—or you might have a list with thousands of records.)

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE FIRSTNAME = 'JD';

LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE     PHONE         ST        ZIP
--------        ---------          ------   --------      ----        ----
MAST            JD                    381   555-6767        LA       23456
1 rows selected.
mysql> select * from friends
    -> where firstname = 'JD';
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| lastname | firstname | areacode | phone    | st | zip   |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| MAST     | JD        |      381 | 555-6767 | LA | 23456 |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
1 row in set (0.37 sec)

We got the result that we expected. Try this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE FIRSTNAME = 'AL';
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
BUNDY           AL                    100 555-1111 IL 22333
MEZA            AL                    200 555-2222 UK
2 rows selected.

Here’s another very important lesson concerning case sensitivity:

Input/Output

SQL>  SELECT FIRSTNAME FROM FRIENDS
   2 WHERE FIRSTNAME = 'BUD';

FIRSTNAME
---------------
BUD
1 row selected.
mysql> select firstname from friends where firstname = 'BUD';
+-----------+
| firstname |
+-----------+
| BUD       |
+-----------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

Now try this:

Input/Output

SQL> select FIRSTNAME from friends
   2 where firstname = 'Bud';

no rows selected.
mysql> select firstname
    -> from friends
    -> where firstname = 'bud';
+-----------+
| firstname |
+-----------+
| BUD       |
+-----------+
1 row in set (0.01 sec)

Analysis

Even though SQL syntax is not case sensitive, data within it is, at least in some implementations. As you can see in the preceding examples, data stored in an Oracle database (SQL*Plus) is case sensitive, whereas the MySQL example demonstrates the opposite.

Most companies prefer to store data in uppercase to provide data consistency. I recommend that you always store data either in all uppercase or in all lowercase, regardless of what type of database you are working in. Mixing case might create difficulties when you try to retrieve accurate data through comparisons in the WHERE clause.

Greater Than (>) and Greater Than or Equal To (>=)

The greater than operator (>) works like this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE AREACODE > 300;
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- ------
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
BULHER          FERRIS                345 555-3223 IL 23332

2 rows selected.

This example found all the area codes greater than (but not including) 300. To include 300, type this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE AREACODE >= 300;
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
BULHER          FERRIS                345 555-3223 IL 23332
3 rows selected.

mysql> select * from friends
    -> where areacode >= 300;
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| lastname | firstname | areacode | phone    | st | zip   |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| MERRICK  | BUD       |      300 | 555-6666 | CO | 80212 |
| MAST     | JD        |      381 | 555-6767 | LA | 23456 |
| BULHER   | FERRIS    |      345 | 555-3223 | IL | 23332 |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
3 rows in set (0.34 sec)

With this change you get area codes starting at 300 and going up. You could achieve the same results with the statement AREACODE > 299.

Less Than (<) and Less Than or Equal To (<=)

As you might expect, these comparison operators work the same way as > and >= work, only in reverse:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE ST < 'LA';
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
BUNDY           AL                    100 555-1111 IL 22333
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
BULHER          FERRIS                345 555-3223 IL 23332
3 rows selected.

mysql> select * from friends where st < 'LA';
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| lastname | firstname | areacode | phone    | st | zip   |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| BUNDY    | AL        |      100 | 555-1111 | IL | 22333 |
| MERRICK  | BUD       |      300 | 555-6666 | CO | 80212 |
| BULHER   | FERRIS    |      345 | 555-3223 | IL | 23332 |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Analysis

Wait a minute. Did you just use < on a character field? Of course you did. You can use any of these operators on any data type. The result varies by data type. For example, use lowercase in the following state search:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE STATE < 'la';
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
BUNDY           AL                    100 555-1111 IL 22333
MEZA            AL                    200 555-2222 UK
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
BULHER          FERRIS                345 555-3223 IL 23332
5 rows selected.

mysql> select * from friends where st < 'la';
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| lastname | firstname | areacode | phone    | st | zip   |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| BUNDY    | AL        |      100 | 555-1111 | IL | 22333 |
| MERRICK  | BUD       |      300 | 555-6666 | CO | 80212 |
| BULHER   | FERRIS    |      345 | 555-3223 | IL | 23332 |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Uppercase is usually sorted before lowercase; therefore, the uppercase codes returned are less than la. Again, to be safe, check your implementation.

To include the state of Louisiana in the original search, type

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE STATE <= 'LA';
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
BUNDY           AL                    100 555-1111 IL 22333
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
BULHER          FERRIS                345 555-3223 IL 23332
4 rows selected.

mysql> select * from friends where st <= 'LA';
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| lastname | firstname | areacode | phone    | st | zip   |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| BUNDY    | AL        |      100 | 555-1111 | IL | 22333 |
| MERRICK  | BUD       |      300 | 555-6666 | CO | 80212 |
| MAST     | JD        |      381 | 555-6767 | LA | 23456 |
| BULHER   | FERRIS    |      345 | 555-3223 | IL | 23332 |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
4 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Inequalities (< > or !=)

When you need to find everything except for certain data, use the inequality symbol, which can be either < > or !=, depending on your SQL implementation. For example, to find everyone who is not AL, type this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE FIRSTNAME <> 'AL';
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
BULHER          FERRIS                345 555-3223 IL 23332
3 rows selected.

mysql> select * from friends where firstname <> 'AL';
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| lastname | firstname | areacode | phone    | st | zip   |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| MERRICK  | BUD       |      300 | 555-6666 | CO | 80212 |
| MAST     | JD        |      381 | 555-6767 | LA | 23456 |
| BULHER   | FERRIS    |      345 | 555-3223 | IL | 23332 |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
4 rows in set (0.00 sec)

To find everyone not living in California, type this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE STATE != 'CA';
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
BUNDY           AL                    100 555-1111 IL 22333
MEZA            AL                    200 555-2222 UK
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
BULHER          FERRIS                345 555-3223 IL 23332
5 rows selected.

mysql> select * from friends where st != 'CA';
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| lastname | firstname | areacode | phone    | st | zip   |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| BUNDY    | AL        |      100 | 555-1111 | IL | 22333 |
| MEZA     | AL        |      200 | 555-2222 | UK|        |
| MERRICK  | BUD       |      300 | 555-6666 | CO | 80212 |
| MAST     | JD        |      381 | 555-6767 | LA | 23456 |
| BULHER   | FERRIS    |      345 | 555-3223 | IL | 23332 |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Character Operators

You can use character operators to manipulate the way character strings are represented, both in the output of data and in the process of placing conditions on data to be retrieved. This section describes two character operators: the LIKE operator and the || operator, the latter of which conveys the concept of character concatenation.

LIKE

What if you wanted to select parts of a database that fit a pattern but weren’t quite exact matches? You could use the equal sign and run through all the possible cases, but that process would be boring and time-consuming. Instead, you can use LIKE. Consider the following:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM PARTS;
NAME            LOCATION        PARTNUMBER
-----------     -----------     ----------
APPENDIX        MID-STOMACH              1
ADAMS APPLE     THROAT                   2
HEART           CHEST                    3
SPINE           BACK                     4
ANVIL           EAR                      5
KIDNEY          MID-BACK                 6
6 rows selected.

How can you find all the parts located in the back? A quick visual inspection of this simple table shows that it has two parts, but unfortunately the locations have slightly different names. Try this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM PARTS
   3 WHERE LOCATION LIKE '%BACK%';
NAME            LOCATION        PARTNUMBER
-------         --------        ----------
SPINE           BACK                     4
KIDNEY          MID-BACK                 6
2 rows selected.

Analysis

You can see the use of the percent sign (%) in the statement after LIKE. When used inside a LIKE expression, % is a wildcard. What you asked for was any occurrence of BACK in the column location. If you queried

Input

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM PARTS
   3 WHERE LOCATION LIKE 'BACK%';

you would get any occurrence that started with BACK:

Input/Output

NAME            LOCATION        PARTNUMBER
-----           --------        ----------
SPINE           BACK                     4


1 rows selected.
mysql> select * from parts where location like 'BACK%';
+-------+----------+------------+
| name  | location | partnumber |
+-------+----------+------------+
| SPINE | BACK     |          4 |
+-------+----------+------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

If you queried

Input

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM PARTS
    3 WHERE NAME LIKE 'A%';

you would get any name that starts with A:

Output

NAME            LOCATION        PARTNUMBER
-----------     -----------     ----------
APPENDIX        MID-STOMACH              1
ADAMS APPLE     THROAT                   2
ANVIL           EAR                      5
3 rows selected.

Is LIKE case sensitive in both Oracle and MySQL? Try the next query to find out.

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM PARTS
   3 WHERE NAME LIKE 'a%';

no rows selected

mysql> select * from parts where name like 'a%';
+-------------+-------------+------------+
| name        | location    | partnumber |
+-------------+-------------+------------+
| APPENDIX    | MID-STOMACH |          1 |
| ADAMS APPLE | THROAT      |          2 |
| ANVIL       | EAR         |          5 |
+-------------+-------------+------------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

The answer is yes in Oracle and no in MySQL. References to data are dependent upon the implementation you are working with.

What if you want to find data that matches all but one character in a certain pattern? In this case you could use a different type of wildcard: the underscore.

Underscore (_)

The underscore is the single-character wildcard. Using a modified version of the table FRIENDS, type this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM FRIENDS;
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
BUNDY           AL                    100 555-1111 IL 22333
MEZA            AL                    200 555-2222 UK
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
BULHER          FERRIS                345 555-3223 IL 23332
PERKINS         ALTON                 911 555-3116 CA 95633
BOSS            SIR                   204 555-2345 CT 95633
7 rows selected.

To find all the records where ST starts with C, type the following:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE ST LIKE 'C_';
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
PERKINS         ALTON                 911 555-3116 CA 95633
BOSS            SIR                   204 555-2345 CT 95633
3 rows selected.

mysql> select * from friends where st like 'C_';
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| lastname | firstname | areacode | phone    | st | zip   |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| MERRICK  | BUD       |      300 | 555-6666 | CO | 80212 |
| PERKINS  | ALTON     |      911 | 555-3116 | CA | 95633 |
| BOSS     | SIR       |      204 | 555-2345 | CT | 95633 |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
3 row in set (0.00 sec)

You can use several underscores in a statement:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE PHONE LIKE'555-6_6_';
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
2 rows selected.

The previous statement could also be written as follows:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE PHONE LIKE '555-6%';
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
2 rows selected.

Notice that the results are identical. These two wildcards can be combined. The next example finds all records with L as the second character:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
  2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE FIRSTNAME LIKE '_L%';
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
BUNDY           AL                    100 555-1111 IL 22333
MEZA            AL                    200 555-2222 UK
PERKINS         ALTON                 911 555-3116 CA 95633
3 rows selected.

Concatenation (||)

The || (double pipe) symbol concatenates two strings. Try this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT FIRSTNAME || LASTNAME ENTIRENAME
   2 FROM FRIENDS;
ENTIRENAME
----------------------
AL             BUNDY
AL             MEZA
BUD            MERRICK
JD             MAST
FERRIS         BULHER
ALTON          PERKINS
SIR            BOSS
7 rows selected.

Analysis

Notice that || is used instead of +. If you use + to try to concatenate the strings, the SQL interpreter used for this example (Oracle) returns the following error:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT FIRSTNAME + LASTNAME ENTIRENAME
   2  FROM FRIENDS;

ERROR:
ORA-01722: invalid number

It is looking for two numbers to add and throws the error invalid number when it doesn’t find any.

Input/Output

mysql> select concat(firstname," ",lastname)Entirename from friends;
+---------------+
| Entirename    |
+---------------+
| AL BUNDY      |
| BUD MERRICK   |
| JD MAST       |
| FERRIS BULHER |
| AL MEZA       |
| ALTON PERKINS |
| SIR BOSS      |
+---------------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Here’s a more practical example using concatenation:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT LASTNAME || ',' || FIRSTNAME NAME
   2  FROM FRIENDS;

NAME
----------------------------------------------
BUNDY    , AL
MEZA     , AL
MERRICK  , BUD
MAST     , JD
BULHER   , FERRIS
PERKINS  , ALTON
BOSS     , SIR
7 rows selected.

mysql> select concat(lastname,","," ",firstname)Name from friends;
+----------------+
| Name           |
+----------------+
| BUNDY, AL      |
| MEZA, AL       |
| MERRICK, BUD   |
| MAST, JD       |
| BULHER, FERRIS |
| PERKINS, ALTON |
| BOSS, SIR      |

+----------------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

The Oracle statement inserted a comma between the last name and the first name. This was done because Oracle (and other implementations) accounts for the entire length that a column may be when it concatenates to the other string. This creates a natural spacing between the values of the columns/strings. The MySQL statement inserted a comma and a space between the two columns. MySQL automatically runs the values of the columns/strings into one; thus, any “natural” spacing between the values is lost.

So far you have performed the comparisons one at a time. This method is fine for some problems, but what if you need to find all the people at work with last names starting with P who have less than three days of vacation time? Logical operators can help in this case.

Logical Operators

Logical operators separate two or more conditions in the WHERE clause of a SQL statement.

Vacation time is always a hot topic around the workplace. Say you designed a table called VACATION for the accounting department:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM VACATION;

LASTNAME        EMPLOYEENUM     YEARS LEAVETAKEN
--------------- -----------     ----- ----------
ABLE                    101         2          4
BAKER                   104         5         23
BLEDSOE                 107         8         45
BOLIVAR                 233         4         80
BOLD                    210        15        100
COSTALES                211        10         78
6 rows selected.

Suppose your company gives each employee 12 days of leave each year. Using what you have learned and a logical operator, find all the employees whose name starts with B and who have more than 50 days of leave coming.

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT LASTNAME,
   2 YEARS * 12 - LEAVETAKEN REMAINING
   3 FROM VACATION
   4 WHERE LASTNAME LIKE 'B%'
   5 AND
   6 YEARS * 12 - LEAVETAKEN > 50;
LASTNAME        REMAINING
--------        ---------
BLEDSOE                51
BOLD                   80
2 rows selected.


mysql> select lastname,
    -> years*12 - leavetaken remaining
    -> from vacation
    -> where lastname like 'B%'
    -> and years*12 - leavetaken > 50;
+----------+-----------+
| lastname | remaining |
+----------+-----------+
| BLEDSOE  |        51 |
| BOLD     |        80 |
+----------+-----------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Analysis

This query is the most complicated you have done to date. The SELECT clause (lines 1 and 2) uses arithmetic operators to determine how many days of leave each employee has remaining. The normal precedence computes YEARS * 12 - LEAVETAKEN. (A clearer approach would be to write (YEARS * 12) - LEAVETAKEN.)

LIKE is used in line 4 with the wildcard % to find all the B names. Line 5 uses the > to find all occurrences greater than 50.

The new element is on line 5. You used the logical operator AND to ensure that you found records that met the criteria in lines 4 and 5.

AND

AND requires that both expressions on either side be true to return TRUE. If either expression is false, AND returns FALSE. For example, to find out which employees have been with the company for 5 or fewer years and have taken more than 20 days leave, try this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT LASTNAME
   2 FROM VACATION
   3 WHERE YEARS <= 5
   4 AND
   5 LEAVETAKEN > 20 ;
LASTNAME
--------
BAKER
BOLIVAR
2 rows selected.

mysql> select lastname from vacation
    -> where years <= 5
    -> and leavetaken > 20;
+----------+
| lastname |
+----------+
| BAKER    |
| BOLIVAR  |
+----------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

If you want to know which employees have been with the company for 5 years or more and have taken less than 50 percent of their leave, you could write:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT LASTNAME WORKAHOLICS
   2 FROM VACATION
   3 WHERE YEARS >= 5
   4 AND
   5 ((YEARS *12)-LEAVETAKEN)/(YEARS * 12) < 0.50;
WORKAHOLICS
-----------
BOLD
COSTALES

2 rows selected.


mysql> select lastname Workaholics
    -> from vacation
    -> where years >= 5
    -> and ((years * 12) - leavetaken) / (years * 12) < 0.50;
+-------------+
| Workaholics |
+-------------+
| BOLD        |
| COSTALES    |
+-------------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Check these people for burnout. Also check out how we used the AND to combine these two conditions.

OR

You can also use OR to sum up a series of conditions. If any of the comparisons are true, OR returns TRUE. To illustrate the difference, run the last query with OR instead of with AND:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT LASTNAME WORKAHOLICS
   2 FROM VACATION
   3 WHERE YEARS >= 5
   4 OR
   5 ((YEARS *12)-LEAVETAKEN)/(YEARS * 12) < 0.50;

WORKAHOLICS
-----------
BAKER
BLEDSOE
BOLD
COSTALES

4 rows selected.


mysql> select lastname
    -> from vacation
    -> where years >= 5
    -> OR ((years*12)-leavetaken)/(years*12) < 0.50;
+----------+
| lastname |
+----------+
| BAKER    |
| BLEDSOE  |
| BOLD     |
| COSTALES |
+----------+
4 rows in set (0.00 sec)

The original names are still in the list, but you have three new entries (who would probably resent being called workaholics). These three new names made the list because they satisfied one of the conditions. OR requires only that one of the conditions be true for data to be returned.

NOT

NOT means just that. If the condition it applies to evaluates to TRUE, NOT makes it FALSE. If the condition after the NOT is FALSE, it becomes TRUE. For example, the following SELECT returns the only two names not beginning with B in the table:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM VACATION
   3 WHERE LASTNAME NOT LIKE 'B%';
LASTNAME        EMPLOYEENUM     YEARS LEAVETAKEN
--------        -----------     ----- ----------
ABLE                    101         2          4
COSTALES                211        10         78
2 rows selected.


mysql> select * from vacation
    -> where lastname not like 'B%';
+----------+-------------+-------+------------+
| lastname | employeenum | years | leavetaken |
+----------+-------------+-------+------------+
| ABLE     |         101 |     2 |          4 |
| COSTALES |         211 |    10 |         78 |
+----------+-------------+-------+------------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

NOT can also be used with the operator IS when applied to NULL. Recall the PRICE table where we put a NULL value in the WHOLESALE column opposite the item ORANGES.

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM PRICE;

ITEM            WHOLESALE
--------------- ---------
TOMATOES              .34
POTATOES              .51
BANANAS               .67
TURNIPS               .45
CHEESE                .89
APPLES                .23
ORANGES
7 rows selected.

To find the non-NULL items, type this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM PRICE
   3 WHERE WHOLESALE IS NOT NULL;
ITEM            WHOLESALE
--------------- ---------
TOMATOES              .34
POTATOES              .51
BANANAS               .67
TURNIPS               .45
CHEESE                .89
APPLES                .23
6 rows selected.

Set Operators

In Lesson 1, “Getting Started with SQL,” you learned that SQL is based on the theory of sets. The following sections examine set operators. Set operators are used to combine different sets of data returned by different queries into one query, and ultimately, one data set. There are various set operators available in SQL that allow you to combine different data sets to meet your data processing needs.

UNION and UNION ALL

UNION returns the results of two queries minus the duplicate rows. The following two tables represent the rosters of teams:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM FOOTBALL;

NAME
----------------
ABLE
BRAVO
CHARLIE
DECON
EXITOR
FUBAR
GOOBER
7 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT * FROM SOFTBALL;

NAME
-----------------
ABLE
BAKER
CHARLIE
DEAN
EXITOR
FALCONER
GOOBER
7 rows selected.

How many different people play on one team or another?

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT NAME FROM SOFTBALL
   2 UNION
   3 SELECT NAME FROM FOOTBALL;
NAME
----------------
ABLE
BAKER
BRAVO
CHARLIE
DEAN
DECON
EXITOR
FALCONER
FUBAR
GOOBER
10 rows selected.

UNION returns 10 distinct names from the two lists. How many names are on both lists (including duplicates)?

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT NAME FROM SOFTBALL
   2 UNION ALL
   3 SELECT NAME FROM FOOTBALL;
NAME
----------------
ABLE
BAKER
CHARLIE
DEAN
EXITOR
FALCONER
GOOBER
ABLE
BRAVO
CHARLIE
DECON
EXITOR
FUBAR
GOOBER
14 rows selected.

Analysis

The combined list—courtesy of the UNION ALL statement—has 14 names. UNION ALL works just like UNION except that it does not eliminate duplicates. You need to remember that the UNION and UNION ALL statements will only work if all SELECT statements have the same columns. Otherwise, an error message will be returned. Now show me a list of players who are on both teams. You can’t do that with UNION—you need to learn INTERSECT.

INTERSECT

INTERSECT returns only the rows found by both queries. The next SELECT statement shows the list of players who play on both teams:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM FOOTBALL
   2 INTERSECT
   3 SELECT * FROM SOFTBALL;
NAME
----------------
ABLE
CHARLIE
EXITOR
GOOBER
4 rows selected.

In this example, INTERSECT finds the short list of players who are on both teams by combining the results of the two SELECT statements. INTERSECT has the same limitations as the UNION and UNION ALL statement, in as much as the SELECT statements that it is binding must contain the same columns.

MINUS (Difference)

MINUS returns the rows from the first query that were not present in the second. For example:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM FOOTBALL
   2 MINUS
   3 SELECT * FROM SOFTBALL;
NAME
-----------------
BRAVO
DECON
FUBAR

3 rows selected.

The preceding query shows the three football players who are not on the softball team. If you reverse the order, you get the three softball players who aren’t on the football team:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT * FROM SOFTBALL
   2 MINUS
   3 SELECT * FROM FOOTBALL;
NAME
------------------
BAKER
DEAN
FALCONER

3 rows selected.

Miscellaneous Operators: IN and BETWEEN

The two operators IN and BETWEEN provide a shorthand for functions you already know how to do. If you wanted to find friends in Colorado, California, and Louisiana, you could type the following:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE ST= 'CA'
   4 OR
   5 ST ='CO'
   6 OR
   7 ST = 'LA';

LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
PERKINS         ALTON                 911 555-3116 CA 95633

3 rows selected.

Or you could type this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE ST IN('CA','CO','LA');
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
MERRICK         BUD                   300 555-6666 CO 80212
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
PERKINS         ALTON                 911 555-3116 CA 95633
3 rows selected.


mysql> select * from friends
    -> where st in ('CA','CO','LA');
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| lastname | firstname | areacode | phone    | st | zip   |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
| MERRICK  | BUD       |      300 | 555-6666 | CO | 80212 |
| MAST     | JD        |      381 | 555-6767 | LA | 23456 |
| PERKINS  | ALTON     |      911 | 555-3116 | CA | 95633 |
+----------+-----------+----------+----------+----+-------+
2 rows in set (0.20 sec)

The second example is shorter and more readable than the first. You never know when you might have to go back and work on something you wrote months ago. IN also works with numbers. Consider the following, where the column AREACODE is a number:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM FRIENDS
   3 WHERE AREACODE IN(100,381,204);
LASTNAME        FIRSTNAME        AREACODE PHONE    ST ZIP
--------        ---------        -------- -------- -- -----
BUNDY           AL                    100 555-1111 IL 22333
MAST            JD                    381 555-6767 LA 23456
BOSS            SIR                   204 555-2345 CT 95633
3 rows selected.

If you needed a range of data from the PRICE table, you could write the following:

Input/Output

SQL>  SELECT *
  2   FROM PRICE
  3   WHERE WHOLESALE > 0.25
  4   AND
  5   WHOLESALE < 0.75;

ITEM            WHOLESALE
--------        ---------
TOMATOES              .34
POTATOES              .51
BANANAS               .67
TURNIPS               .45
4 rows selected.

Or using BETWEEN, you would write this:

Input/Output

SQL> SELECT *
   2 FROM PRICE
   3 WHERE WHOLESALE BETWEEN 0.25 AND 0.75;
ITEM            WHOLESALE
--------        ---------
TOMATOES              .34
POTATOES              .51
BANANAS               .67
TURNIPS               .45
4 rows selected.


mysql> select * from price
    -> where wholesale between .25 and .75;
+----------+-----------+
| item     | wholesale |
+----------+-----------+
| TOMATOES |      0.34 |
| POTATOES |      0.51 |
| BANANAS  |      0.67 |
| TURNIPS  |      0.45 |
+----------+-----------+
4 rows in set (0.08 sec)

Again, the second example is a cleaner, more readable solution than the first.

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  • In response to a subpoena, court order or legal process, to the extent permitted or required by law
  • To protect the security and safety of individuals, data, assets and systems, consistent with applicable law
  • In connection the sale, joint venture or other transfer of some or all of its company or assets, subject to the provisions of this Privacy Notice
  • To investigate or address actual or suspected fraud or other illegal activities
  • To exercise its legal rights, including enforcement of the Terms of Use for this site or another contract
  • To affiliated Pearson companies and other companies and organizations who perform work for Pearson and are obligated to protect the privacy of personal information consistent with this Privacy Notice
  • To a school, organization, company or government agency, where Pearson collects or processes the personal information in a school setting or on behalf of such organization, company or government agency.

Links


This web site contains links to other sites. Please be aware that we are not responsible for the privacy practices of such other sites. We encourage our users to be aware when they leave our site and to read the privacy statements of each and every web site that collects Personal Information. This privacy statement applies solely to information collected by this web site.

Requests and Contact


Please contact us about this Privacy Notice or if you have any requests or questions relating to the privacy of your personal information.

Changes to this Privacy Notice


We may revise this Privacy Notice through an updated posting. We will identify the effective date of the revision in the posting. Often, updates are made to provide greater clarity or to comply with changes in regulatory requirements. If the updates involve material changes to the collection, protection, use or disclosure of Personal Information, Pearson will provide notice of the change through a conspicuous notice on this site or other appropriate way. Continued use of the site after the effective date of a posted revision evidences acceptance. Please contact us if you have questions or concerns about the Privacy Notice or any objection to any revisions.

Last Update: November 17, 2020