- Sams Teach Yourself SQL in 24 Hours, Third Edition
- Table of Contents
- Copyright
- About the Authors
- Acknowledgments
- Tell Us What You Think!
- Introduction
- Part I: A SQL Concepts Overview
- Hour 1. Welcome to the World of SQL
- SQL Definition and History
- SQL Sessions
- Types of SQL Commands
- An Introduction to the Database Used in This Book
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Part II: Building Your Database
- Hour 2. Defining Data Structures
- What Is Data?
- Basic Data Types
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 3. Managing Database Objects
- What Are Database Objects?
- What Is a Schema?
- A Table: The Primary Storage for Data
- Integrity Constraints
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 4. The Normalization Process
- Normalizing a Database
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 5. Manipulating Data
- Overview of Data Manipulation
- Populating Tables with New Data
- Updating Existing Data
- Deleting Data from Tables
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 6. Managing Database Transactions
- What Is a Transaction?
- What Is Transactional Control?
- Transactional Control and Database Performance
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Part III: Getting Effective Results from Queries
- Hour 7. Introduction to the Database Query
- What Is a Query?
- Introduction to the <tt>SELECT</tt> Statement
- Examples of Simple Queries
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 8. Using Operators to Categorize Data
- What Is an Operator in SQL?
- Comparison Operators
- Logical Operators
- Conjunctive Operators
- Negating Conditions with the <tt>NOT</tt> Operator
- Arithmetic Operators
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 9. Summarizing Data Results from a Query
- What Are Aggregate Functions?
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 10. Sorting and Grouping Data
- Why Group Data?
- The <tt>GROUP BY</tt> Clause
- <tt>GROUP BY</tt> Versus <tt>ORDER BY</tt>
- The <tt>HAVING</tt> Clause
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 11. Restructuring the Appearance of Data
- The Concepts of ANSI Character Functions
- Various Common Character Functions
- Miscellaneous Character Functions
- Mathematical Functions
- Conversion Functions
- The Concept of Combining Character Functions
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 12. Understanding Dates and Times
- How Is a Date Stored?
- Date Functions
- Date Conversions
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Part IV: Building Sophisticated Database Queries
- Hour 13. Joining Tables in Queries
- Selecting Data from Multiple Tables
- Types of Joins
- Join Considerations
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 14. Using Subqueries to Define Unknown Data
- What Is a Subquery?
- Embedding a Subquery Within a Subquery
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 15. Combining Multiple Queries into One
- Single Queries Versus Compound Queries
- Why Would I Ever Want to Use a Compound Query?
- Compound Query Operators
- Using an <tt>ORDER BY</tt> with a Compound Query
- Using <tt>GROUP BY</tt> with a Compound Query
- Retrieving Accurate Data
- Summary
- Workshop
- Q&A
- Part V: SQL Performance Tuning
- Hour 16. Using Indexes to Improve Performance
- What Is an Index?
- How Do Indexes Work?
- The <tt>CREATE INDEX</tt> Command
- Types of Indexes
- When Should Indexes Be Considered?
- When Should Indexes Be Avoided?
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 17. Improving Database Performance
- What Is SQL Statement Tuning?
- Database Tuning Versus SQL Tuning
- Formatting Your SQL Statement
- Full Table Scans
- Other Performance Considerations
- Performance Tools
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Part VI: Using SQL to Manage Users and Security
- Hour 18. Managing Database Users
- Users Are the Reason
- The Management Process
- Tools Utilized by Database Users
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 19. Managing Database Security
- What Is Database Security?
- How Does Security Differ from User Management?
- What Are Privileges?
- Controlling User Access
- Controlling Privileges Through Roles
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Part VII: Summarized Data Structures
- Hour 20. Creating and Using Views and Synonyms
- What Is a View?
- Creating Views
- Dropping a View
- What Is a Synonym?
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 21. Working with the System Catalog
- What Is the System Catalog?
- How Is the System Catalog Created?
- What Is Contained in the System Catalog?
- Examples of System Catalog Tables by Implementation
- Querying the System Catalog
- Updating System Catalog Objects
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Part VIII: Applying SQL Fundamentals in Today's World
- Hour 22. Advanced SQL Topics
- Advanced Topics
- Cursors
- Stored Procedures and Functions
- Triggers
- Dynamic SQL
- Call-Level Interface
- Using SQL to Generate SQL
- Direct Versus Embedded SQL
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 23. Extending SQL to the Enterprise, the Internet, and the Intranet
- SQL and the Enterprise
- Accessing a Remote Database
- Accessing a Remote Database Through a Web Interface
- SQL and the Internet
- SQL and the Intranet
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Hour 24. Extensions to Standard SQL
- Various Implementations
- Examples of Extensions from Some Implementations
- Interactive SQL Statements
- Summary
- Q&A
- Workshop
- Part IX: Appendixes
- Appendix A. Common SQL Commands
- SQL Statements
- SQL Clauses
- Appendix B. Using MySQL for Exercises
- Windows Installation Instructions
- Linux Installation Instructions
- Appendix C. Answers to Quizzes and Exercises
- Hour 1, "Welcome to the World of SQL"
- Hour 2, "Defining Data Structures"
- Hour 3, "Managing Database Objects"
- Hour 4, "The Normalization Process"
- Hour 5, "Manipulating Data"
- Hour 6, "Managing Database Transactions"
- Hour 7, "Introduction to the Database Query"
- Hour 8, "Using Operators to Categorize Data"
- Hour 9, "Summarizing Data Results from a Query"
- Hour 10, "Sorting and Grouping Data"
- Hour 11, "Restructuring the Appearance of Data"
- Hour 12, "Understanding Dates and Time"
- Hour 13, "Joining Tables in Queries"
- Hour 14, "Using Subqueries to Define Unknown Data"
- Hour 15, "Combining Multiple Queries into One"
- Hour 16, "Using Indexes to Improve Performance"
- Hour 17, "Improving Database Performance"
- Hour 18, "Managing Database Users"
- Hour 19, "Managing Database Security"
- Hour 20, "Creating and Using Views and Synonyms"
- Hour 21, "Working with the System Catalog"
- Hour 22, "Advanced SQL Topics"
- Hour 23, "Extending SQL to the Enterprise, the Internet, and the Intranet"
- Hour 24, "Extensions to Standard SQL"
- Appendix D. <tt>CREATE TABLE</tt> Statements for Book Examples
- <tt>EMPLOYEE_TBL</tt>
- <tt>EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL</tt>
- <tt>CUSTOMER_TBL</tt>
- <tt>ORDERS_TBL</tt>
- <tt>PRODUCTS_TBL</tt>
- Appendix E. <tt>INSERT</tt> Statements for Data in Book Examples
- <tt>INSERT</tt> Statements
- Appendix F. Glossary
- Appendix G. Bonus Exercises
Recommended Book
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Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical functions in SQL—the same as in most other languages. There are four conventional operators for mathematical functions:
- + (addition)
- - (subtraction)
- * (multiplication)
- / (division)
Addition
Addition is performed through the use of the plus (+) symbol.
|
Example |
Meaning |
|
SELECT SALARY + BONUS FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL; |
The SALARY column is added with the BONUS column for a total for each row of data |
|
SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL WHERE SALARY + BONUS > '40000'; |
Returns all rows that are greater than the total of the SALARY and BONUS columns |
Subtraction
Subtraction is performed using the minus (-) symbol.
|
Example |
Meaning |
|
SELECT SALARY - BONUS FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL; |
The BONUS column is subtracted from the SALARY column for the difference |
|
SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL WHERE SALARY - BONUS > '40000'; |
Returns all rows where the SALARY minus the BONUS is greater than 40000 |
Multiplication
Multiplication is performed by using the asterisk (*) symbol.
|
Example |
Meaning |
|
SELECT SALARY * 10 FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL; |
The SALARY column is multiplied by 10 |
|
SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL WHERE SALARY * 10 > '40000'; |
Returns all rows where the product of the SALARY multiplied by 10 is greater than 40000 |
The pay rate in the following example is multiplied by 1.1, which increases the current pay rate by 10 percent:
SELECT EMP_ID, PAY_RATE, PAY_RATE * 1.1 FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL WHERE PAY_RATE IS NOT NULL;
EMP_ID PAY_RATE PAY_RATE*1.1 ----------- -------- ------------ 442346889 14.75 16.225 220984332 11 12.1 443679012 15 16.5 3 rows selected.
Division
Division is performed through the use of the slash (/) symbol.
|
Example |
Meaning |
|
SELECT SALARY / 10 FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL; |
The SALARY column is divided by 10 |
|
SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL WHERE SALARY / 10 > '40000'; |
Returns all rows that are greater than the SALARY |
|
SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL WHERE SALARY / 10 > '40000'; |
Returns all rows where the salary divided by 10 is greater than 40000 |
Arithmetic Operator Combinations
The arithmetic operators can be used in combinations with one another. Remember the rules of precedence in basic mathematics. Multiplication and division operations are performed first, and then addition and subtraction operations. The only way the user has control over the order of the mathematical operations is through the use of parentheses. Parentheses surrounding an expression causes that expression to be evaluated as a block.
|
Precedence is the order in which expressions are resolved in a mathematical expression or with embedded functions in SQL. |
|
Expression |
Result |
|
1 + 1 * 5 |
6 |
|
(1 + 1) * 5 |
10 |
|
10 - 4 / 2 + 1 |
9 |
|
(10 - 4) / (2 + 1) |
2 |
In the following examples, notice that the placement of parentheses in an expression does not affect the outcome if only multiplication and division are involved. Precedence is not a factor in these cases. Although it may not appear to make sense, it is possible that some implementations of SQL do not follow the ANSI standard in cases like this, however unlikely.
|
Expression |
Result |
|
4 * 6 / 2 |
12 |
|
(4 * 6) / 2 |
12 |
|
4 * (6 / 3) |
12 |
The following are some more examples:
SELECT SALARY * 10 + 1000 FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL WHERE SALARY > 20000; SELECT SALARY / 52 + BONUS FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL; SELECT (SALARY - 1000 + BONUS) / 52 * 1.1 FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL;
The following is a rather wild example:
SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE_PAY_TBL WHERE SALARY < BONUS * 3 + 10 / 2 - 50;
Because parentheses are not used, mathematical precedence takes effect, altering the value for BONUS tremendously for the condition.