Tuning TCP: Transport Layer
This chapter is from the book
This chapter is from the book
This chapter is from the book
This chapter describes some of key Transport Control Protocol (TCP) tunable parameters related to performance tuning. More importantly it describes how these tunables work, how they interact with each other, and how they impact network traffic when they are modified.
Applications often recommend TCP settings for tunable parameters, but offer few details on the meaning of the parameters and adverse effects that might result from the recommended settings. This chapter is intended as a guide to understanding those recommendations. This chapter is intended for network architects and administrators who have an intermediate knowledge of networking and TCP. This is not an introductory chapter on TCP terminology. The concepts discussed in this chapter build on basic terminology concepts and definitions. For an excellent resource, refer to Internetworking with TCP/IP Volume 1, Principles, Protocols, and Architectures by Douglas Comer, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Network architects responsible for designing optimal backbone and distribution IP network architectures for the corporate infrastructure are primarily concerned with issues at or below the IP layer—network topology, routing, and so on. However, in data center networks, servers connect either to the corporate infrastructure or the service provider networks, which host applications. These applications provide networked application services with additional requirements in the area of networking and computer systems, where the goal is to move data as fast as possible from the application out to the network interface card (NIC) and onto the network. Designing network architectures for performance at the data center includes looking at protocol processing above Layer 3, into the transport and application layers. Further, the problem becomes more complicated because many clients' stateful connections are aggregated onto one server. Each client connection might have vastly different characteristics, such as bandwidth, latencies, or probability of packet loss. You must identify the predominant traffic characteristics and tune the protocol stack for optimal performance. Depending on the server hardware, operating system, and device driver implementations, there could be many possible tuning configurations and recommendations. However, tuning the connection-oriented transport layer protocol is often most challenging.
This chapter includes the following topics:
-
"TCP Tuning Domains" on page 38 provides an overview of TCP from a tuning perspective, describing the various components that contain tunable parameters and where they fit together from a high level, thus showing the complexities of tuning TCP.
-
"TCP State Model" on page 48 proposes a model of TCP that illustrates the behavior of TCP and the impact of tunable parameters. The system model then projects a network traffic diagram baseline case showing an ideal scenario.
-
"TCP Congestion Control and Flow Control – Sliding Windows" on page 53 shows various conditions to help explain how and why TCP tuning is needed and which are the most effective TCP tunable parameters needed to compensate for adverse conditions.
-
"TCP and RDMA Future Data Center Transport Protocols" on page 62 describes TCP and RDMA, promising future networking protocols that may overcome the limitations of TCP.
TCP Tuning Domains
Transport Control Protocol (TCP) tuning is complicated because there are many algorithms running and controlling TCP data transmissions concurrently, each with slightly different purposes.
FIGURE 3-1 shows a high-level view of the different components that impact TCP processing and performance. While the components are interrelated, each has its own function and optimization strategy.
-
The STREAMS framework looks at raw bytes flowing up and down the streams modules. It has no notion of TCP, congestion in the network, or the client load. It only looks at how congested the STREAMS queues are. It has its own flow control mechanisms.
-
TCP-specific control mechanisms are not tunable, but they are computed based on algorithms that are tunable.
-
Flow control mechanisms and congestion control mechanisms are functionally completely different. One is concerned with the endpoints, and the other is concerned with the network. Both impact how TCP data is transmitted.
-
Tunable parameters control scalability. TCP requires certain static data structures that are backed by non-swappable kernel memory. Avoid the following two scenarios:
-
Allocating large amounts of memory. If the actual number of simultaneous connections is fewer than anticipated, memory that could have been used by other applications is wasted.
-
-
Allocating insufficient memory. If the actual number of connections exceeds the anticipated TCP load, there will not be sufficient free TCP data structures to handle the peak load.
)
Figure 3-1 Overview of Overlapping Tuning Domains
This class of tunable parameters directly impacts the number of simultaneous TCP connections a server can handle at peak load and control scalability.
TCP Queueing System Model
The goal of TCP tuning can be reduced to maximizing the throughput of a closed loop system, as shown in FIGURE 3-2. This system abstracts all the main components of a complete TCP system, which consists of the following components:
-
Server— The focus of this chapter.
-
Network— The endpoints can only infer the state of the network by measuring and computing various delays, such as round-trip times, timers, receipt of acknowledgments, and so on.
-
Client— The remote client endpoint of the TCP connection.
)
Figure 3-2 Closed-Loop TCP System Model
This section requires basic background in queueing theory. For more information, refer to Queueing Systems, Volume 1, by Dr. Lenny Kleinrock, 1975, Wiley, New York. In FIGURE 3-2, we model each component as an M/M/1 queue. An M/M/1 queue is a simple queue that has packet arrivals at a certain speed, which we've designated as λ. At the other end of the queue, these packets are processed at a certain speed, which we've designated as µ.
TCP is a full duplex protocol. For the sake of simplicity, only one side of the duplex communication process is shown. Starting from the server side on the left in FIGURE 3-2, the server application writes a byte stream to a TCP socket. This is modeled as messages arriving at the M/M/1 queue at the rate of l. These messages are queued and processed by the TCP engine. The TCP engine implements the TCP protocol and consists of various timers, algorithms, retransmit queues, and so on, modeled as the server process µ, which is also controlled by the feedback loop as shown in FIGURE 3-2. The feedback loop represents acknowledgements (ACKs) from the client side and receive windows. The server process sends packets to the network, which is also modeled as an M/M/1 queue. The network can be congested, hence packets are queued up. This captures latency issues in the network, which are a result of propagation delays, bandwidth limitations, or congested routers. In FIGURE 3-2 the client side is also represented as an M/M/1 queue, which receives packets from the network and the client TCP stack, processes the packets as quickly as possible, forwards them to the client application process, and sends feedback information to the server. The feedback represents the ACK and receive window, which provide flow control capabilities to this system.
Why the Need to Tune TCP
FIGURE 3-3 shows a cross-section view of the sequence of packets sent from the server to the client of an ideally tuned system. Send window-sized packets are sent one after another in a pipelined fashion continuously to the client receiver. Simultaneously, the client sends back ACKs and receive windows in unison with the server. This is the goal we are trying to achieve by tuning TCP parameters. Problems crop up when delays vary because of network congestion, asymmetric network capacities, dropped packets, or asymmetric server/client processing capacities. Hence, tuning is required. To see the TCP default values for your version of Solaris, refer to the Solaris documentation at docs.sun.com.
)
Figure 3-3 Perfectly Tuned TCP/IP System
In a perfectly tuned TCP system spanning several network links of varying distances and bandwidths, the clients send back ACKs to sender in perfect synchronization with the start of sending the next window.
The objective of an optimal system is to maximize the throughput of the system. In the real world, asymmetric capacities require tuning on both the server and client side to achieve optimal throughput. For example, if the network latency is excessive, the amount of traffic injected into the network will be reduced to more closely maintain a flow that matches the capacity of the network. If the network is fast enough, but the client is slow, the feedback loop will be able to alert the sender TCP process to reduce the amount of traffic injected into the network. Later sections will build on these concepts to describe how to tune for wireless, high-speed wide area networks (WANs), and other types of networks that vary in bandwidth and distance.
FIGURE 3-4 shows the impact of the links increasing in bandwidth; therefore, tuning is needed to improve performance. The opposite case is shown in FIGURE 3-5, where the links are slower. Similarly, if the distances increase or decrease, delays attributed to propagation delays require tuning for optimal performance.
)
Figure 3-4 Tuning Required to Compensate for Faster Links
)
Figure 3-5 Tuning Required to Compensate for Slower Links
TCP Packet Processing Overview
Now let's take a look at the internals of the TCP stack inside the computing node. We will limit the scope to the server on the data center side for TCP tuning purposes. Since the clients are symmetrical, we can tune them using the exact same concepts. In a large enterprise data center, there could be thousands of clients, each with a diverse set of characteristics that impact network performance. Each characteristic has a direct impact on TCP tuning and hence on overall network performance. By focusing on the server, and considering different network deployment technologies, we essentially cover the most common cases.
FIGURE 3-6 shows the internals of the server and client nodes in more detail.
)
Figure 3-6 Complete TCP/IP Stack on Computing Nodes
To gain a better understanding of TCP protocol processing, we will describe how a packet is sent up and down a typical STREAMS-based TCP implementation. Consider the server application on the left side of FIGURE 3-6 as a starting point. The following describes how data is moved from the server to the client on the right.
-
The server application opens a socket. (This triggers the operating system to set up the STREAMS stack, as shown.) The server then binds to a transport layer port, executes listen, and waits for a client to connect. Once the client connects, the server completes the TCP three-way handshake, establishes the socket, and both server and client can communicate.
-
Server sends a message by filling a buffer, then writing to the socket.
-
The message is broken up and packets are created, sent down the streamhead (down the read side of each STREAMS module) by invoking the rput routine. If the module is congested, the packets are placed on the service routine for deferred processing. Each network module will prepend the packet with an appropriate header.
-
Once the packet reaches the NIC, the packet is copied from system memory to the NIC memory, transmitted out of the physical interface, and sent into the network.
-
The client reads the packet into the NIC memory and an interrupt is generated that copies the packet into system memory and goes up the protocol stack as shown on right in the Client Node.
-
The STREAMS modules read the corresponding header to determine the processing instructions and where to forward the packet. Headers are stripped off as the packet is moved upwards on the write side of each module.
-
The client application reads in the message as the packet is processed and translated into a message, filling the client read buffer.
The SolarisTM operating system (Solaris OS) offers many tunable parameters in the TCP, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and IP STREAMS module implementation of these protocols. It is important to understand the goals you want to achieve so that you can tune accordingly. In the following sections, we provide a high-level model of the various protocols and provide deployment scenarios to better understand which parameters are important to tune and how to go about tuning them.
We start off with TCP, which is, by far, the most complicated module to tune and has the greatest impact on performance. We then describe how to modify these tunable parameters for different types of deployments. Finally, we describe IP and UDP tuning.
TCP STREAMS Module Tunable Parameters
The TCP stack is implemented using existing operating system application programming interfaces (APIs). The Solaris OS offers a STREAMS framework, originating from AT&T, which was originally designed to allow a flexible modular software framework for network protocols. The STREAMS framework has its own tunable parameters, for example sq_max_size, which controls the depth of a STREAMS syncq. This impacts how raw data messages are processed for TCP. FIGURE 3-7 provides a more detailed view of the facilities provided by the Solaris STREAMS framework.
)
Figure 3-7 TCP and STREAM Head Data Structures Tunable Parameters
FIGURE 3-7 shows some key tunable parameters for the TCP-related data path. At the top is the streamhead, which has a separate queue for TCP traffic, where an application reads data. STREAMS flow control starts here. If the operating system is sending up the stack to the application and the application cannot read data as fast as the sender is sending it, the stream read queue starts to fill. Once the number of packets in the queue exceeds the high-water mark, tcp_sth_recv_hiwat, streams-based flow control triggers and prevents the TCP module from sending any more packets up to the streamhead. There is some space available for critical control messages (M_PROTO, M_PCPROTO). The TCP module will be flow controlled as long as the number of packets is above tcp_sth_recv_lowat. In other words, the streamhead queue must drain below the low-water mark to reactivate TCP to forward data messages destined for the application. Note that the write side of the streamhead does not require any high-water or low-water marks because it is injecting packets into the downstream, and TCP will flow control the streamhead write side by its high-water and low-water marks tcp_xmit_hiwat and tcp_xmit_lowat. Refer to the Solaris AnswerBook2TM at docs.sun.com for the default values of your version of the Solaris OS.
TCP has a set of hash tables. These tables are used to search for the associated TCP socket state information on each incoming TCP packet to maintain state engine for each socket and perform other TCP tasks to maintain that connection, such as update sequence numbers, update windows, round trip time (RTT), timers, and so on.
The TCP module has two new queues for server processes. The first queue, shown on the left in FIGURE 3-7, is the set of packets belonging to sockets that have not yet established a connection. The server side has not yet received and processed a client-side ACK. If the client does not send an ACK within a certain window of time, then the packet will be dropped. This was designed to prevent synchronization (SYN) flood attacks, where a bunch of unacknowledged client SYN requests caused servers to be overwhelmed and prevented valid client connections from being processed. The next queue is the listen backlog queue, where the client has sent back the final ACK, thus completing the three-way handshake. The server socket for this client will move the connection from LISTEN to ACCEPT. But the server has not yet processed this packet. If the server is slow, then this queue will fill up. The server can override this queue size with the listen backlog parameter. TCP will flow control on IP on the read side with its parameters tcp_recv_lowat and tcp_recv_hiwat similar to the streamhead read side.